Brain and Social Learning Theory Essay

1. What aspect of demeanorism make it attr sprightly to critics of the psychoanalytic perspective? How did Pi shape upts theory respond to a major limitation of behaviorism? Psychoanalytic theory emphasized on the individuals unique life. However the theory was criticized because many of its ideas were as well vague to be measured or psychometric tested for. They mainly concentrate on case studies. Behaviorism studied directly observ fitted behaviors by stimuli and responses, thereof holding researchers to be measure and test behaviors. Pi bestridets theory decl argon the biological aspect of discipline in a pincers evolution, which was a major limitation in behaviorism. He overly argued that electric razorren channelise an active part in their pick uping.2. Although favorable learning theory focuses on accessible development and Pia recovers theory on cognitive development, individu each(prenominal)y has heightend our understanding of an early(a)(prenominal) doma ins. Mention an additional domain communicate by separately theory.Social learning theory is also cognise as imitation or observable learning, it is a powerful writer of development. Bandura made huge contri exclusivelyions to the social learning theory. His sample explained the reasoning spotlesslyt end wherefore s keep uprren modeled others. Children imitated others found on their history of reinforcement or punishment for a behavior. He because revised his theory because acquaintance also toured a huge use in this theory. He theory soon to be kn protest as the social-cognitive theory. Social-cognition theory is the encounter that people learn by watching others. Inpsychology, it explains personality in terms of how a person thinks about and responds to whizzs social environment. Children gradually start out more than selective with imitation because finished watching others self-praise or self blame and by meaning of feedback, a churl develops personal stan dards and self-efficacy. (belief that their let abilities give suffice them succeed). In Piagets cognitive-development, a social aspect bottom be recognized in his full takes.He acceptd that squirtrens learning depended on reinforces, for example rewards from adults. Piagetbelieved that as the mind-set develops, a childs experience expands. He characterized these stages into four broader stages based on distinct ways of intellection (sensori locomote/preoperational/concrete operational/ nut operational). Not only did he explore how children understood the natural world, but he also looked into their reasoning of the social world. with developing the stages, it also sparked the research for how children saw themselves, other people and humankind consanguinity.3. A 4-year-old becomes sc be of the dark and refuses to go to sleep at night. How would a psychoanalyst and a behaviorist differ in their views of how this task developed?A psychoanalyst believes that fears a rgon from experienced events or the fear is a symbol of something that happened in the past. So if a child was afraid of the dark whitethornbe the child was go forth at a young age and is afraid of organism alone. Freud theorized that all phobias ar a direct result of unresolved conflicts amidst the id and the superego. The id is the part of our cards that acts solely based on emotions, while the superego is our conscience, the part of our top dog that acts based on value judgements acting contrarily to the judgements of the superego allow for reach a sense of guilt, andthat sense of guilt can lead to unwelcome behavior, like phobic behavior. More specifically, Freud theorized that phobias result from the superego repressing the desires of the id, and one of the close to common repressions is the desire.A behaviorist believes that a child acts a certain(a) way imputable(p) to a response that has been rewarded. In other lecture if the child acts scared of the dark, he or she is expecting to be able to induct a light on or be comforted by the adult. That is what happened the previous time. According to a behaviorist the way a child reacts to something can be ultimately matched by conditioning. To explain why the child has now become afraid of the dark, many would look to the evokes for an answer.If the child relates an event or fall outrence that happened in the dark it may then cause a long lasting fear in that childs mind. An example could be something as simple as a book that the childs father read about junkies under the bed which could thenlead the child to believe that there really are monsters under their own bed. A behaviorist would suggest for the parent to reassure the child that organism in the dark is in fact not scary and reinforce the idea until the child lets go of this fear. Behaviorists pull up stakes want to diffuse the behavior and then educate the child on how to control that behavior.4. Explain how each of the following rec ent theoretical perspective regards children as active contributors to their own development nurture-processing, evolutionary developmental psychology, Vygotskys sociocultural theory, ecological systems theory, and high-power systems perspective. In instituteation processing The theory states that at the time information is presented to the senses at input until it emerges as a behavioral response at output. The information we obtain is continuously being coded for, transformed and organized. Therefore children actively engulf in thinking processes where they decided what action they should pursue for the task they are accomplishing. Evolutionary development Focuses on seeking understanding the adaptive set of species-wide cognitive, emotional and social competencies as they change with age. Evolutionary psychologist believes that humans large soul and extended childhood resulted from the need to headwaiter complexities of human group life. Therefore, newborns play an active role as they continue to leaven and explore the world around them. The mentality continues to be stimulated by means of and through experiences that add to many other factors such as emotion and social fundamental interaction. Vygotskys Sociocultural theory Children actively acquire their ways of thinking and behavior that make up communitys culture through social interaction. In particular through conversation with knowledgeable members of society. Adults and peers help children master culturally meaningful events. Children are active and constructive beings, but in regards to Vygotskys theory, cognitive development relies more so on social interaction. Ecological Systems Theory Focuses on a bidirectional family between the child and aspects in his environment from four levels the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and macrosystem. The child is an active contributor to their environment through the bi-directionality of their relationship with their environment. For example, aneasy-going and happy child will receive more positive stimulant drug from their parents, and other aspects of the environment. dynamic systems perspective- It is a system that combines the childs mind, ashes and physical and social worlds form an integrated system that guides mastery of new skills. Stage like transformations occur as children reorganized their behavior so components of the system work as a functioning whole.5. why might a researcher shoot structured reflection over meetational observation? How about the face-lift? What might lead the researcher to opt for clinical interviewing over dictatorial observation?Researchers may choose structured observation over ingrainedistic observation due to their ability to control the try. In naturalistic observations, researchers are limited to observe particular behavior in e actuallyday life, due to the limitations of this technique. By setting up a laboratory situation, structured observations allow the researchers are able to evoke the behavior of please and also allowing participants an compeer fortune for them to display the reaction. One would choose clinical interviewing over taxonomical observation for several reasons. Clinical interviewing allows participants to think as close as possible to their everyday lives and large amounts of information can be store in a short menstruation of time. Whereas in systematic observation the accuracy of the study can be reduced by percipient influence and observer bias.6. Explain why, although a research method essential be reliable to be valid, dependability does notguarantee hardiness. dependableness is referred to consistency or repeatability of a measures of behavior. In order to be reliable, observations and evaluations cannot be unique to a single observer. Reliability does not guarantee validness, because reliability cannot be measured. For it to be a valid study, the experiment must be able to be measured. Often times, it is difficult to measure clinical and ethnographical studies because it does not yield quantitative scores. In order to guarantee validity researchers must examine the content of the observations and self-reports to make sure all behaviors of interest are included. In regards to research designs, there are 2 broader types of validity used. Internal validity refers to the participant influencing the result, but not any other unwanted variable. Whereas external validity refers to the extent that research can be constituentralized or extended to others.7. Why are natural experiments little precise than laboratory and field experiments? Often times when researchers cannot randomly accord participants or manipulate conditions in the real world, they use the natural experiment to avoid these limitations. Natural experiment use treatments that already exist, which are compared. The participants are carefully picked for groups in order to get the intimately similar characteristic. C reating an opportunity for the desired situation can prove problematic in a naturalistic experiment..There also isnt a way to hire a control in a natural experiment, so the results cannot be compared as easily. Natural experiments are less precise because it is harder to isolate one variable than in a laboratory or field experiment. In field experiments, participants are randomly assigned to treatment condition in a natural setting. However in laboratory experiments, researchers assigned participants every bit to ii or more treatment conditions. There are two variables being tested for, independent and dependent variables. They are categorized through events and behaviors of interest.8. Explain how age bracket effects can distort the findings of some(prenominal) longitudinal and cross-sectional studies. How does the sequential design reveal cohort effects? The cohort effects both(prenominal) longitudinal and cross-sectional studies because it dismisses their findings because it does not represent the entire population. In longitudinal studies, there are chances of a bias sample consequently the participants in this particular experiment may only representthe population who are interested in this experiment.Often times, selective attrition publications place where participants either drop out or withdrawal from the experiment. longitudinal may study different ages over time, but it does not take into consideration of the participants in different cultures. Whereas in the cross-sectional studies, it doesnt bet for an individuals development, since people are studied in groups this causes a cohort effect. Through sequential design, cohort effects can be dismissed by comparing multiple experiments which present the same ages at different years. If both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies are similar, comparisons of both experiments can too be compared and further adding confidence to the data.9. Cite evidence indicating that both heredity and environ ment top to the development of children with phenylketonuria and coldcock syndrome.phenylketonuria is caused by the inheritance of two recessive alleles which causes inhibit individuals from digesting the amino acid, phenylalanine. If left untreated, the child can become mentally retarded by the of age 1. However, in the US, all babies are given a blood test for PKU and if the disease is found, the child is placed on a fare low in phenylalanine. Even the smallest amount of phenylalanine can be damaging. Children with PKU often show deficits in cognitive skills like memory, planning, decision making, and problem solving. If the diet low in phenylalanine is kept persistent than those affected by PKU can show average intelligence and normal development.stDown Syndrome is caused by inheriting an extra 21chromosome. Brian studies of those affectedby raze syndrome shows reduced brain size, along with mental retardation, memory, and speech problems, and slow go development. Most indiv iduals affected by down syndrome who live over the age of 40 usually contract alzheimers, which is linked to the 21st chromosome. Environmental factors that could affect down syndrome are the mothers age and health. Children with Down syndrome grinning less readily, show poor eye contact, and explore less than those without. For this reason, it is very weighty for caregivers to encourage their child to be more engaged in theirsurroundings. This encouragement can help them to develop better. These children also benefit from interposition programs, which helps them develop better socially and emotionally, however not as oftentimes intellectually.10. Referring to ecological systems theory, explain why parents of children with contractable disorders often experience change magnitude focussing. What factors, within and beyond the family, can help these parents support their childrens development? In the ecological system, the relationship between the child and and the parents (part of the mesosystem) is seen as bidirectional. The parents of child with genetic disorders would feel increased pressure and stress from their child, because the may demand more from theirenvironment. The parents can benefit from support from tierce parties outside of their system. However, its also important that parents receive support within their system, their spouse. Children with genetic disorders tend to subscribe behavioral issues that could affect their parents marriage. If the parents have an unstable relationship, it can cause problems for the child. If the parents have a stable relationship, than more positive attitudes will be projected towards the child.Positive attitudes will positively impact the childs development. It is also helpful for a family to have a positive neighborhood connections and environment, in particular in low income families, for support. 11. Why is the current of the embryo regarded as the near dramatic prenatal period? Why is the period of th e foetus called the growth and finishing phase? The period of the embryo is regarded as the nearly dramatic prenatal period because this is the most rapid prenatal changes. During this stage, the groundwork is laid out for all body structures and internal organs. Since all parts are developing, this would be consider the most vulnerable stage for the embryo and it would be most susceptible to teratogens and good defects. The period of the fetus is referred to as growth and finishing phase because this is the stage in where the organism is rapidly suppuration in size. Not only will the organism grow rapidly in size during the fetus period, but towards the end of pregnancy will mark the finishing harvest-homeion by and by the fetus is fully grown. the muscle and nervous system become more refined. Sex of the fetus can also be detected.12. Howis brain development colligate to fetal capacities and behavior? What implications do individual differences in fetal behavior have for th e babys temperament afterward birth? The human brain is not fully developed at birth much human brain development continues after birth. Nevertheless, a baby is not a blank slate they come provide with a surprising range of abilities and capacities. Babies have the beginnings of sophisticated sensory capabilities fond to range of frequencies of womens voices sensitive sense of smell.Brain development is related to fetal capacities and behavior because babies come into the world with a built-in learning capacities that permits them to only profit from experience immediately. Infants are only capable of two basic forms of learning, classical and operant learning. They also learn through natural preferences for novel input signal and eventually through observing others. Infants have an important-looking statistical learning where they can rapidly analyze speech teem for patterns. The acquire a stock of speech structures for which they will later learn meanings, long before they c an start to talk. Immediately after birth, babies adjoin differences in temperament (inclination to engage in a certain elbow room of behavior) Approach (react positively to new stimuli) vs. withdrawal (react negatively to new stimuli, i.e. cry, fuss, etc.) elementary (dont cry as often, not as demanding) vs. difficult (fussy, demanding) almost aspects of temperament tend to remain stable over the course of development, as a result of advance(prenominal) nurturing experiences13. What is epigenesis, and how does it differ from geneenvironment interaction and geneenvironment correlation coefficient? Provide an example of each.Gene-environment interaction means that because of a persons genetic-makeup, individuals differ in responses to qualities environment. For example, in an experiment to test intelligence, Ben would score a higher score as the excitant was enriched, whereas Lindas would rise and then fall sharply due to the enriched stimulus and Ron would only respond to the environment as it becomes more stimulating.Gene-environment correlation is a concept that states our that our genesinfluence our environments. There are three categories to explain this idea. passive correlation refers to a child having no control over their genes and the environment. Instead, parents play a huge role in passive correlation for they may encourage their to be athletic because they both grew up playing sports, thus assuming their child would too have the same preference. Evocative correlation refers to the responses a child elicit from others are influenced through heredity.Thus this stimulation strengthens the childs original style. For example an active baby will gain more attention and social stimulation than a child who is passive and quiet. Active correlation refers to children being actively engaged in their experience and environment. This is process that is described as niche-picking. Both of these theories focus on a one direction exchange. Epigenesis sees development as a bidirectional exchange, the environment influencing the genes and the genes influencing the environment.For example, an aggression gene found on the X chromosome in males showed no correlation of them being more aggressive than the ones without the gene, UNLESS, the child with the gene was exposed to child abuse. The combination of both the gene and the environmental factors contribute to the expression of aggression. The more aggressive a child acts, the more enate anger or criticism they would receive, this shows how the environment can act on a gene and vice versa. External and internal stimulation both affect the expression of a gene. 14. How do the diverse capacities of newborn babies contribute to their send-off social relationships?Newborns are considered to have plastic brains because they are able to mold into their environment or recover from traumatic experiences due to the malleability of their brain. Neurons are yet assigned a location in the brain t o perform specific functions, therefore their first social interaction is critical in the first few moments that newborns are brought into the world. Their first social relationship is extremely important to create a bond with whom the child first meets, for example, their mother.15. Cite evidence that motor development is a joint product of biological, psychological, and environmental factors.Environmental Parental encouragement plays a huge role in a childsmotivation to complete the task they set forth to accomplish. With constant praise and reinforcement, a child will continue to strive to complete more tasks. As new skills are being acquired, there is a joint process occurringwhen mastery these motor skills. The central nervous system, body movement capacities, the goal the child has in mind and the environment supports the skill being developed. Biologically In the early weeks of life brain and body growth are especially important as infants achieve control over the head, sh oulders, and upper torso.Psychological Through curiosity, a baby will be set offd to explore their surroundings, therefore desiring to master new task. A babys goal to get a toy or crossing the room will motivate them to accomplish the task. Through multiple attempts and practice, the infant will eventually master that particular motor skill and continue to integrate and redefined their already know skill.16. Explain why either too much stimulation or too little stimulation over an extended time negatively disrupts early development.Early stimulation and late stimulation can both be harmful to newborns. Early stimulation on newborns can enhance one specific skill, but also hinder many other skills in future development. Stimulation too late in development can also hinder skills because they lag behind other developmenting babies due the lack of stimulation. This refers to the developmental aspect of the brain where pruning occurs. Information that is not stimulated enough that is crucial for further development will be negatively affected.17. What implications do findings on children from Eastern European orphanages have for the disputation over the lasting impact of early experiences on development? Studies through on children adopted from Romanian orphanages show significant findings in their physical and cognitive development. The majority of the orphans adopted before 6 months that were adopted all catch up in physical and cognitive development.Whereas, babies who were adopted after the 6 months period were unable to catch up physically and cognitively, which after impaired their intellectualabilities. Thus the findings found indicate that early, prolonged institualization leads to a generalized reduction in activity in the cerebral cortex, especially in the prefrontal cortex which governs complex cognition and impulse control. 18. How does stimulation affect brain development? Cite evidence at the level of neurons and at the level of the cerebral cort ex.Stimulation is vital when the brain is growing most rapidly. Stimulation allows the neurons to create synapses within the brain to stored newly knowing information. However, information which are continually stimulated will more in all likelihood to remain in long term memory rather those that are not, also known as pruning Formation of synapses are most rapid during the first 2 years, especially in auditory, visual and speech areas.The cerebral cortex is the largest brain structure and the last structure to stop growing, therefore it is the more sensitive to environmental influences. It also contains the greatest flesh of neurons and synapses. The prefrontal is responsible for movement and thought, this particular area in the brain undergoes rapid myelination and formation and pruningof synapses during preschool and school years also followed by another accelerated growth in adolescence, when it reaches an adult level of synaptic connections.